Python

The Java programming language is a high-level language. In the Java programming language, all source code is first written in plain text files ending with the .java extension. Those source files are then compiled into .class files by the javac compiler. A .class file does not contain code that is native to your processor; it instead contains bytecodes — the machine language of the Java Virtual Machine (Java VM). The java launcher tool then runs your application with an instance of the Java Virtual Machine.

Because the Java VM is available on many different operating systems, the same .class files are capable of running on Microsoft Windows, the Solaris™ Operating System (Solaris OS), Linux, or Mac OS. Some virtual machines, such as the Java SE HotSpot at a Glance, perform additional steps at runtime to give your application a performance boost. This includes various tasks such as finding performance bottlenecks and recompiling (to native code) frequently used sections of code.

https://www.oracle.com/java/

Since its creation, C++ has become one of the most widely used programming languages in the world. Well-written C++ programs are fast and efficient. The language is more flexible than other languages: It can work at the highest levels of abstraction, and down at the level of the silicon. C++ supplies highly optimized standard libraries. It enables access to low-level hardware features, to maximize speed and minimize memory requirements. C++ can create almost any kind of program: Games, device drivers, HPC, cloud, desktop, embedded, and mobile apps, and much more. Even libraries and compilers for other programming languages get written in C++.

One of the original requirements for C++ was backward compatibility with the C language. As a result, C++ has always permitted C-style programming, with raw pointers, arrays, null-terminated character strings, and other features. They may enable great performance, but can also spawn bugs and complexity. The evolution of C++ has emphasized features that greatly reduce the need to use C-style idioms. The old C-programming facilities are still there when you need them. However, in modern C++ code you should need them less and less. Modern C++ code is simpler, safer, more elegant, and still as fast as ever.

https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/cpp/?view=msvc-170

Dart is a client-optimized language for developing fast apps on any platform. Its goal is to offer the most productive programming language for multi-platform development, paired with a flexible execution runtime platform for app frameworks.

Languages are defined by their technical envelope — the choices made during development that shape the capabilities and strengths of a language. Dart is designed for a technical envelope that is particularly suited to client development, prioritizing both development (sub-second stateful hot reload) and high-quality production experiences across a wide variety of compilation targets (web, mobile, and desktop).

Dart also forms the foundation of Flutter. Dart provides the language and runtimes that power Flutter apps, but Dart also supports many core developer tasks like formatting, analyzing, and testing code.

https://dart.dev/

C is a flexible language that leaves many programming decisions up to you. In keeping with this philosophy, C imposes few restrictions in matters such as type conversion. Although this characteristic of the language can make your programming job easier, you must know the language well to understand how programs will behave. This book provides information on the C language components and the features of the Microsoft implementation. The syntax for the C language is from ANSI X3.159-1989, American National Standard for Information Systems - Programming Language - C (hereinafter called the ANSI C standard), although it is not part of the ANSI C standard.

https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-language/?view=msvc-170

C# (pronounced "See Sharp") is a modern, object-oriented, and type-safe programming language. C# has its roots in the C family of languages and will be immediately familiar to C, C++, Java, and JavaScript programmers.

C# is an object-oriented, component-oriented programming language. C# provides language constructs to directly support these concepts, making C# a natural language in which to create and use software components. Since its origin, C# has added features to support new workloads and emerging software design practices. At its core, C# is an object-oriented language. You define types and their behavior.

Several C# features help create robust and durable applications. Garbage collection automatically reclaims memory occupied by unreachable unused objects. Nullable types guard against variables that don't refer to allocated objects. Exception handling provides a structured and extensible approach to error detection and recovery. Lambda expressions support functional programming techniques. Language Integrated Query (LINQ) syntax creates a common pattern for working with data from any source. Language support for asynchronous operations provides syntax for building distributed systems. C# has a unified type system. All C# types, including primitive types such as int and double, inherit from a single root object type. All types share a set of common operations. Values of any type can be stored, transported, and operated upon in a consistent manner. Furthermore, C# supports both user-defined reference types and value types. C# allows dynamic allocation of objects and in-line storage of lightweight structures. C# supports generic methods and types, which provide increased type safety and performance. C# provides iterators, which enable implementers of collection classes to define custom behaviors for client code.

C# emphasizes versioning to ensure programs and libraries can evolve over time in a compatible manner. Aspects of C#'s design that were directly influenced by versioning considerations include the separate virtual and override modifiers, the rules for method overload resolution, and support for explicit interface member declarations.

https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/csharp/

The Go programming language is an open source project to make programmers more productive.

Go is expressive, concise, clean, and efficient. Its concurrency mechanisms make it easy to write programs that get the most out of multicore and networked machines, while its novel type system enables flexible and modular program construction. Go compiles quickly to machine code yet has the convenience of garbage collection and the power of run-time reflection. It's a fast, statically typed, compiled language that feels like a dynamically typed, interpreted language.

https://go.dev/

Kotlin is a modern but already mature programming language aimed to make developers happier. It’s concise, safe, interoperable with Java and other languages, and provides many ways to reuse code between multiple platforms for productive programming.

https://kotlinlang.org/

PHP (recursive acronym for PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor) is a widely-used open source general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for web development and can be embedded into HTML.

There are three main areas where PHP scripts are used.

• Server-side scripting. This is the most traditional and main target field for PHP. You need three things to make this work: the PHP parser (CGI or server module), a web server and a web browser. You need to run the web server, with a connected PHP installation. You can access the PHP program output with a web browser, viewing the PHP page through the server. All these can run on your home machine if you are just experimenting with PHP programming.
• Command line scripting. You can make a PHP script to run it without any server or browser. You only need the PHP parser to use it this way. This type of usage is ideal for scripts regularly executed using cron (on *nix or Linux) or Task Scheduler (on Windows). These scripts can also be used for simple text processing tasks.
• Writing desktop applications. PHP is probably not the very best language to create a desktop application with a graphical user interface, but if you know PHP very well, and would like to use some advanced PHP features in your client-side applications you can also use PHP-GTK to write such programs. You also have the ability to write cross-platform applications this way. PHP-GTK is an extension to PHP, not available in the main distribution.

https://www.php.net/

Ruby is a simple and powerful object-oriented programming language, created by Yukihiro Matsumoto (who goes by the handle “Matz” in this document and on the mailing lists).

Like Perl, Ruby is good at text processing. Like Smalltalk, everything in Ruby is an object, and Ruby has blocks, iterators, meta-classes and other good stuff.

You can use Ruby to write servers, experiment with prototypes, and for everyday programming tasks. As a fully-integrated object-oriented language, Ruby scales well.

Ruby features:

• Simple syntax,
• Basic OO features (classes, methods, objects, and so on),
• Special OO features (mixins, singleton methods, renaming, and so on),
• Operator overloading,
• Exception handling,
• Iterators and closures,
• Garbage collection,
• Dynamic loading (depending on the architecture),
• High transportability (runs on various Unices, Windows, DOS, macOS, OS/2, Amiga, and so on).

https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/

Rust is blazingly fast and memory-efficient: with no runtime or garbage collector, it can power performance-critical services, run on embedded devices, and easily integrate with other languages.

Rust’s rich type system and ownership model guarantee memory-safety and thread-safety — enabling you to eliminate many classes of bugs at compile-time.

Rust has great documentation, a friendly compiler with useful error messages, and top-notch tooling — an integrated package manager and build tool, smart multi-editor support with auto-completion and type inspections, an auto-formatter, and more.

Rust also brings contemporary developer tools to the systems programming world:

• Cargo, the included dependency manager and build tool, makes adding, compiling, and managing dependencies painless and consistent across the Rust ecosystem.
• Rustfmt ensures a consistent coding style across developers.
• The Rust Language Server powers Integrated Development Environment (IDE) integration for code completion and inline error messages.

https://www.rust-lang.org/

TypeScript is a strongly typed programming language that builds on JavaScript.

The most common kinds of errors that programmers write can be described as type errors: a certain kind of value was used where a different kind of value was expected. This could be due to simple typos, a failure to understand the API surface of a library, incorrect assumptions about runtime behavior, or other errors. The goal of TypeScript is to be a static typechecker for JavaScript programs - in other words, a tool that runs before your code runs (static) and ensures that the types of the program are correct (typechecked).

https://www.typescriptlang.org/

Visual Basic is an object-oriented programming language developed by Microsoft. Using Visual Basic makes it fast and easy to create type-safe .NET apps.

https://docs.microsoft.com/en-gb/dotnet/visual-basic/

Django is a high-level Python web framework that encourages rapid development and clean, pragmatic design. Built by experienced developers, it takes care of much of the hassle of web development, so you can focus on writing your app without needing to reinvent the wheel. It’s free and open source.

Ridiculously fast - Django was designed to help developers take applications from concept to completion as quickly as possible.

Reassuringly secure - Django takes security seriously and helps developers avoid many common security mistakes.

Exceedingly scalable - Some of the busiest sites on the web leverage Django’s ability to quickly and flexibly scale.

https://www.djangoproject.com/

The Julia programming language is a flexible dynamic language, appropriate for scientific and numerical computing, with performance comparable to traditional statically-typed languages.

https://julialang.org/

R is a language and environment for statistical computing and graphics. It is a GNU project which is similar to the S language and environment which was developed at Bell Laboratories (formerly AT&T, now Lucent Technologies) by John Chambers and colleagues. R can be considered as a different implementation of S. There are some important differences, but much code written for S runs unaltered under R.

R provides a wide variety of statistical (linear and nonlinear modelling, classical statistical tests, time-series analysis, classification, clustering, …) and graphical techniques, and is highly extensible. The S language is often the vehicle of choice for research in statistical methodology, and R provides an Open Source route to participation in that activity.

One of R’s strengths is the ease with which well-designed publication-quality plots can be produced, including mathematical symbols and formulae where needed. Great care has been taken over the defaults for the minor design choices in graphics, but the user retains full control.

R is available as Free Software under the terms of the Free Software Foundation’s GNU General Public License in source code form. It compiles and runs on a wide variety of UNIX platforms and similar systems (including FreeBSD and Linux), Windows and MacOS.

https://www.r-project.org/

Bash (Bourne Again Shell) is a Shell scripting language designed to interact with Linux (and other SYSV Unix) operating systems. It was introduced in the early 1990s and was intended to be much more developer friendly than the more traditional Bourne, Kourne and CSH shell options, supporting features like auto-complete and brace expansion. Bash supports most of the syntax that Bourne shell does, but provides a superset of additional functionality as well. It is the default shell on most Linux systems. It is often used for shell script programming and stdio/stdout manipulation.